Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) was a Soviet psychologist whose sociocultural theory of cognitive development argues that higher mental functions — reasoning, problem-solving, abstract thought — develop through social interaction before being internalized as individual capacities. Learning is mediated by language, cultural tools, and more knowledgeable others.
Core ideas
- Zone of proximal development (ZPD): the gap between what a learner can do independently and what they can do with guidance. Effective instruction operates within this zone.
- Scaffolding: the support structures (from teachers, peers, or tools) that enable learners to accomplish tasks they cannot yet perform alone, gradually withdrawn as competence develops.
- Social origins of thought: Vygotsky argued, against Piaget, that cognitive development is fundamentally social — thought originates in social interaction and is internalized, rather than emerging from individual maturation.